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Vineyard Establishment Bruce Bordelon Department
of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture | Site Preparation | Vineyard Design and Layout | Planting and Establishment | Trellising | Post Planting Management | Training Young Vines | 1st Year Management | Grow Tubes | 2nd Year Management | 3rd Year Management | Fruit Removal | Vineyard Floor Management | Weed Control in the Vine Row | Fertilization | Disease and Insect Control | References | Establishing a grape vineyard can be a difficult task for the inexperienced grower. Success depends on proper planning to assure availability of materials, equipment, and labor when needed. Additionally, the grower needs to have a thorough understanding of the principles of vine growth, pest management, plant nutrition, etc. Though challenging, it can be a rewarding experience.
Preparation of the vineyard site is very important since a vineyard, once established, will usually be maintained for many years. Correction of as many site imperfections as possible before planting will add greatly to the longevity and productivity of a vineyard. Ideally, a vineyard site should be prepared at least a year prior to planting. Soil preparation should include land leveling, correction of drainage problems and adjustment of fertility and pH. Control of troublesome perennial weeds is also important before planting, because it is much more difficult after vineyard establishment. Soil testing will provide information on fertility and liming needs for the first-year vineyard. If the soil pH is below 5.0, apply agricultural limestone to raise the pH to a more desirable level (5.5-6.5). Lime applications should be made the year before planting and the limestone incorporated into the soil as deeply as possible. Desirable range for pH, organic matter, and elements from soil tests for grapes.
aRates given in actual pounds of phosphorous, boron and zinc and in exchangeable pounds of potassium and magnesium, per acre. If the selected site is in sod, there are at least two options available, depending on the topography of the site. If the site is on sloping ground where erosion may be a problem, it is best to apply an approved contact herbicide to only the row area where the vines are to be planted, leaving the row middles in sod. The killed sod can then be sub-soiled, amended with fertilizer and lime, and cultivated to prepare a smooth planting bed. If the proposed site is on relatively level ground without an erosion problem, then the entire site should be plowed, amended with fertilizer and lime and seeded to a suitable winter cover crop such as rye. Adequate depth and drainage are important aspects of vineyard soils. Test pits 4 feet deep and 2 feet wide should be dug to determine the presence of a hardpan or other root obstructing layer. These layers should be broken up by sub-soiling with a chisel plow if possible. In areas of high rainfall vines are often planted on a raised bed or ridge to improve surface drainage away from the plants. After sub-soiling the rows, establish a ridge upon which the vines will be planted by throwing the soil from the edges of the row to the middle with a disk plow or other bed shaping equipment. This ridge should be 8 to 12 inches high and 2 to 4 feet wide.
Vineyards are usually laid out in straight rows running in a North-South direction to intercept the maximum amount of sunlight. However, sites on sloping land may require contour planting or straight rows across the slope regardless of compass orientation. The USDA Soil Conservation Service and State Extension Specialists can assist growers in vineyard design on sloping sites. Contour planting helps prevent soil erosion, but often creates problems with trellis design and establishment. It is probably best to break the vineyard into separate blocks to deal with differences in the topography and soil type. Row spacing depends on the training system and equipment to be used in the vineyard. Nine to ten feet between rows is commonly used, but this distance may need to be increased to 11 or 12 feet to accommodate larger equipment, for sites with steep slopes, or for divided canopy training systems. Row spacing less than nine feet are generally too narrow for most commercial operations. Wider row spacing generally makes it easier to operate equipment, harvest, and prune. However, at wider row spacing the number of plants per acre is less, which generally reduces yield per acre. The relative spacing of vines within the row is determined by the expected vigor of a particular cultivar. Spacing between vines is usually 8 feet for most American and French hybrid cultivars and 6 feet for cultivars with lower vigor. At maturity the vines should completely fill the trellis space without competing with each other for sunlight. Reducing the distance between vines will increase the number of buds per unit area and will lead to increased yield up to a point where shoot crowding and shading begin to reduce the fruitfulness of the vines. Rows should be carefully marked to assure that they are parallel along their entire length. This can be accomplished with a tractor mounted pole twice as long as the row spacing. Three marking teeth are attached to the pole, one in the center and one at each end. The tractor is driven along a well-marked base line to start marking rows. Additional rows are marked during consecutive passes by following a previously marked row with an outside tooth. Enough room (30 to 40 feet) should be left at the ends of rows (headlands) for turning equipment. Alternatively, the vineyard can be laid out with a tape measure(s), marking flags, spray paint or lime to mark the ground, etc. By choosing a base line (such as a fence or road) the grower can establish a first row. Each additional row is marked off of this first row. The 3-4-5 rule (or Right Triangle Rule) is used to make sure that the row ends are marked perpendicular (at a 90˚ angle) to the first row or base line. It is very important that a true 90˚ angle is measured to assure that the rows are spaced properly. To use the 3-4-5 rule, chose a starting point on the end of the first row (A). Mark a spot 40 feet down the first row (B). Now mark a spot 30 feet from the original starting point perpendicular to the first row (C). Stretch a tape between the two marks (B & C). It should be exactly 50 feet. If it is not, adjust the angle from point (A) to point (C) until it is exactly 50 feet from point (B). Now a line from point (A) through point (C) should be 90˚ from the base line (A to B). This is easiest done with two 100 foot tape measures. The process is repeated at the other end of the base row, and possible at intervals along the row if the rows are very long. If available, a transit can be used to shoot exact angles and help line rows out properly. As labor has become more expensive and difficult to attain, grape growers are increasingly depending on mechanization to accomplish the most labor-intensive tasks such as harvest and pruning. Use of mechanized pruning and harvesting equipment requires that rows be very straight to avoid damage to vines, trellises, and equipment. The use of laser-powered levels and laser guided planters has become more common to assure that rows are straight. The more that mechanization is intended to be used (harvesting, pruning, etc.), the more important it is to accurately lay out the planting.
Grapevines can be planted anytime during the growing season, but are best planted in early spring after the date of the last hard freeze has past. Fall planting is not recommended due to the possibility of frost heaving. Vines are usually purchased as dormant bare root plants (1-year-old No. 1 rooted cuttings). Most nurseries recommend fall ordering for delivery the following spring. Once received, the plants should be checked to be sure they are in good condition and moist, then stored in a cool place, preferably cold storage below 40˚F but above freezing, until planted. If they are going to be held for more than a few days and cold storage is not available, they should be healed in until ready to be planted. It is important to prevent the root system from drying out during the handling and planting process. Soak the roots in water for up to 24 hours prior to planting and while transporting to the field. Prune off broken and damaged roots and shorten excessively long roots for convenience. Any additional root pruning is not desirable. The planting hole should be large enough to accommodate the root system with ease. Spread roots well and cover with soil and tamp well. Plants should be set to a depth where the lowest shoot of the dormant plant is just above the soil level. For grafted vines, the graft union should be at least 2 to 3 inches above the soil level to prevent scion rooting. Soil should be mounded up around the vines rather than having a shallow depression at each vine to prevent excessive levels of fertilizer and herbicide from collecting near the plants and causing damage. If soil moisture is low, plants should be watered after planting and as needed until they have developed a root system large enough for support during dry periods. Irrigation is not usually needed on deep, fertile soils, but can greatly improve plant growth during vineyard establishment.
Grapevines require a strong support system. Vine support serves two purposes: First; to support the vine and the crop where it can be managed and cared for properly and efficiently; and second; to expose a greater portion of the foliage to full sunlight, which promotes the production of highly fruitful nodes and improves fruit quality. Grapevines are supported on a trellis made of wood or steel posts and wire. Trellis design, such as number and placement of wires, is dictated by the type of training system used and plant vigor. Most trellises are about 6 feet tall to support the top wire at the desired height and have two or three wires. Post and wire choices are important to avoid trellis failure, especially once the vines have matured and are producing large crops. Pressure treated pine posts are commonly used. Two sizes of posts are normally used; line posts which should be at least 3 inches in diameter and 8 feet long; and end posts which should be longer and larger in diameter to withstand additional strain, usually 5 to 6 inch x 9 to 10 feet. Line post are set 2 to 2.5 feet deep with 5.5 to 6 feet above ground. They are spaced about 24 feet apart in the row depending on vine spacing. Usually three vines are planted between each post, so for plantings with 8 feet between vines the posts should be 24 feet apart. In all trellising systems a strong end post assembly is needed to support the weight of fruit and vines. End posts are generally set 3 feet deep and at a 60˚ angle away from the direction of the row. Screw type anchors or deadmen can be used to brace the end post. An option is to build an H-brace end assembly. High-tensile steel wire is becoming popular for vineyard trellising. Its strength and durability are superior to conventional galvanized wire. Twelve and a half gauge is most common. High-tensile wire is stiffer than conventional soft wire so it cannot be twisted and tied easily. A wire-crimping tool and crimps are necessary to properly secure the wire. Several special devices are available to attach wire to posts, splice wires, adjust tension, and so on.
Once vines are planted the grower has several very important tasks ahead. In fact, “the work has just begun” so to speak. Good vine growth during the first two years is critical to the future performance of the vineyard. Vines that do not establish well due to poor cultural management are usually set back several years. The main goal is to establish a large healthy root system by promoting maximum amounts of healthy, well-exposed foliage. To accomplish this goal during the first two years, care must be taken to 1) properly train vines, 2) control weeds, 3) provide necessary nutrients, and 4) control diseases and insects. This discussion will treat each of the four topics separately, but growers should realize that these tasks are done together as part of a coordinated effort.
Once vines are planted the grower has several options for pruning and training the vines. Support should be provided for young vines to keep them off the ground. This will greatly reduce disease problems and provide full sun exposure for maximum growth. The trellis can be established soon after planting to provide this support. If the trellis cannot be established during the planting year, then a single stake should be driven next to each plant and the shoots tied to the stake. Though the trellis doesn’t have to be established during the planting year, doing so greatly facilitates vine training. Pruning and training of young grapevines is done to establish a vine form that meets the requirements of the training system. The grower should decide which training system to use prior to planting the vineyard. The following discussion will assume that the vines will be trained to a high cordon system, the most common training system for French hybrid winegrapes in the Midwest. Growers planning to use other training systems will need to make modifications to these directions.
Proper training begins during the year of planting and the goal is to develop strong, straight shoots that are long enough to be retained as trunks for the 2nd growing season. Shoot vigor is directly related to management of weeds and fertility. If weeds are controlled and the vines receive adequate nitrogen fertilizer, then they should produce several shoots capable of reaching the top wire of the trellis system. In this case the vines can be left unpruned, or pruned to six to eight buds after planting. Vines left unpruned will develop more functional leaf area and larger root systems than vines pruned to a small number of growing shoots. If, however, the grower is not prepared to adequately control weeds and provide needed nutrients, then unpruned vines are likely to produce several short shoots which will not be long enough to retain as trunks at the start of the 2nd year. In this case vines should be pruned to a few buds and all growth removed except the two strongest shoots. This should assure that at least one shoot will be long enough to retain as a trunk. However, if the grower is not committed to good vineyard management, then they might consider delaying planting of the vineyard until such time that a commitment can be made. After planting, but before bud break, prune the top back to a single cane with the appropriate number of buds. Some growers leave a short side cane to tie string(s) for training new shoots to the trellis. String should never be tied around the main trunk of the vine or girdling may result. As shoots begin to grow, the most vigorous shoots are selected and tied loosely to the strings. (Figure 1). A plastic taping machine or “tapener” is handy to attach shoots to strings, or wire “twisties” can be used if care is taken to avoid girdling the shoots.
In recent years, grow tubes or vine shelters have become popular for vineyard establishment. These plastic tubes create a greenhouse-like environment around the plant that promotes rapid shoot growth early in the season. This early rapid growth usually results in a single dominant shoot that has long internodes and is very straight (Figure 2). Proponents claim increased 1st year vine growth and subsequent earlier production, with vines being capable of producing a crop in the second growing season. However, there appears to be little scientific evidence to support these claims. Research in the Midwest has not shown an overall growth increase in vines from using grow tubes. Though tubed vines grow faster early in the season, by the end of the season there is no difference in vine size between tubed and untubed vines. In addition, research has shown that restricting growth to a single shoot, whether by use of a grow tube or by pruning alone, also reduces overall vine growth. In a recent study we found that vines left unpruned and allowed to develop 6-8 shoots developed 3 times more total leaf area than vines trained to a single shoot (tubed or untubed) and, more importantly, had over 2 times more root dry weight (Bordelon and Blume, 2000). The difference in root system size is especially critical since one of the primary goals in vineyard establishment is development of a large healthy root system. A strong correlation was shown between total leaf area and root dry weight which suggests that growers should try to maximize leaf area during vineyard establishment. In most cases, use of grow tubes will lead to reduced leaf area during the first growing season. The primary advantage of using grow tubes in the Midwest appears to be protection from contact herbicides and animal depredation, and a reduction in the time needed for early season vine training. Protection of vines from post-emergent herbicides allows the grower to apply broad-spectrum herbicides easily and safely with conventional equipment. Good weed control is critical for achieving acceptable vine growth (more on weed control below) so this offers an advantage. Grow tubes also keep the vines off the ground with minimal tying required during the first few weeks of growth. However, once the shoots grow out of the top of the tube they must be tied to a string or stake to prevent damage from wind blowing them across the top of the tube.
During the 2nd year, the primary goal is much the same as the 1st year: maximizing vegetative growth. Weed management and nutrition are again critical for acceptable vine growth. At the start of the 2nd year, canes of the previous year’s growth will be retained to be the trunk(s). It is important to only retain healthy canes that are free of mechanical damage or winter injury if they are to be good strong trunks that will be productive and healthy for several years. Additionally, the straightness of the trunks is determined at this time. Not only are straight trunks more esthetically pleasing, they are also easier to manage, especially if mechanized pruning and harvesting is planned. One method to ensure straight trunks is to cut the cane off about 4 inches shorter than the top wire, tie a short piece of twine to the end of the cane and secure it tightly to the tensioned top wire. (Note: The top wire must be tensioned at the start of the second season). A second method is to tie a piece of twine from a spur at the base of the vine to the top wire. The cane is then gently wound around the piece of twine and tied to the top wire. Bamboo or wood stakes can also be used to train straight trunks, but they increase cost. If a double trunk system is desired then two canes are retained as trunks (Figure 4). If possible, the two canes should originate from below ground. Proper planting depth of own-rooted vines will encourage development of shoots from at or below the ground surface (Figure 3). On grafted vines (all European vinifera varieties are grafted onto Phylloxera resistant rootstocks and some hybrids are grafted to increase vigor) the shoots must originate from above the graft union (Figure 5). If there is only one cane of sufficient length and quality to retain as a trunk, then a shoot can be retained from the base of the vine during the second growing season. If none of the canes is of sufficient length to reach the top wire, then the vine should be cut back to 6 to 8 buds and handled as a 1st year vine. In addition to establishing the trunks, the cordons will be developed during the 2nd season. Shoots are retained at the appropriate position and trained along the top wire. On moderately vigorous vines, thin to the best 2 to 4 shoots at the top of the trunks (Figure 6). On more vigorous vines several shoots can be retained above the middle wire to increase the total leaf area (Figure 7). All shoots below the middle wire should be removed unless one is to be retained as a second trunk. Some growers like to pinch the tips when these shoots reach the appropriate cordon length (4 ft. for 8 ft. spaced vines). This promotes lateral branching and early development of spurs on the future cordon. However, some growers prefer to let the shoots grow full length and cut them back to the appropriate length at the beginning of the 3rd season.
At the beginning of the 3rd season the best canes are retained to be the cordons. Other canes are cut back to renewal spurs or completely removed (Figure 8). If lateral shoots are present on the cane, and if these laterals have “persisted” (are healthy and not winter damaged) they can be cut back to one to two node spurs. The new cordons should be loosely wrapped about one full turn over the top wire. Securely attach the end of the cordon to the top wire with wire twisties and loosely attach the base of the cordon to the top wire with plastic ag-lock or similar ties that are strong but loose. The cordon should be wrapped loosely around the top wire so there is room for it to expand over time without growing into the wire. Many growers wrap the cordon on one side of the vine “over” the wire and the cordon on the other side “under” the wire to reduce the chances that the vine will “unwind.”
It is important to remove all flowers and fruit from 1st and 2nd year vines. It has been shown that cropping young vines can reduce the size of root system and overall vine vigor. In the case of high vigor, a small amount of fruit can be left during the 2nd season, but it should be only one or two clusters per plant. Leaving a small amount of fruit helps the grower check for off-type vines early in the life of the vineyard so they can be removed and replaced. Additionally, the presence of fruit on vigorous vines helps slow vine growth in the fall and promotes shoot maturation. However, unless vines are vigorous, fruit should not be retained during the first and second growing season. Remove flowers and fruit early in the season, when shoots are about 12 inches long. Since the first three seasons are used to establish the vine form, there is usually an excessive amount of fruitful wood retained for the size of the vine, especially in the 3rd season. This leads to a crop potential that will exceed the capacity of the vine to support the fruit load. Excess fruit must be removed early in the growing season to avoid reducing vine vigor. About one half of a full crop of fruit can be retained during the3rd season if vine vigor is sufficient. Heavy fruiting of young vines will result in small vine size and reduced yields that may take several years to correct. It is best to be patient and fruit vines only after they are well established.
In young plantings the vineyard floor can be managed in various ways. Generally we separate the “row middle” from the “row” in terms of management. The “row” itself is the area immediately along the vine row. It is typically managed as a vegetation free zone 3 to 4 ft. wide. The remainder of the space between the rows is the “row middle.” During the first two seasons the row middle can be maintained vegetation free by cultivation if desired and if no erosion hazard exists. Alternately it may be allowed to return to natural vegetation or planted a perennial cover crop and maintained by occasional mowing. The cover between the rows reduces erosion and supports vineyard equipment. It allows access for spraying during periods when the soil may be wet and minimizes soil compaction. The cover crop can be a mixture of perennial grasses, native vegetation, or a mixture of grasses, legumes, and other plants. The appropriate mixture depends on soil types, climate, and other vineyard management protocols.
It is very important to provide excellent weed control in the row during the first three years of vineyard establishment. Young grapevines do not compete well with grasses and other weeds, and weed growth can lead to increased disease problems through shading, reduced air flow and increased hours of leaf wetness. In a recent study, Zabadal et al. (1991) showed that of four factors studied: pruning, irrigation, weed control, and fertilization; weed control was the most influential in affecting vine performance in first-year vineyards. None of the other factors could overcome poor vine performance caused by lack of weed control. They have also shown that the width of the vegetation free zone under the trellis can also affect vine growth, and vine size continued to increase as the width of the vegetation free band reached 8 ft., nearly twice as wide as the accepted commercial practice (Zabadal and Dittmer, 1997). These findings show that good weed control in new plantings is a necessity for establishing large, healthy vines. On most soils, a vegetation free zone at least 4 ft. wide should be maintained in the vine row throughout the first three growing seasons until at least late summer. After that, a narrower band may be maintained if the grower desires. Various methods of weed control are available to growers. Herbicides, cultivation, and mulching are all effective. Herbicides are the most common method of controlling weeds in commercial vineyards in the Midwest. Several pre- and post emergent herbicides are labeled for use on grapes. The choice depends on several factors including soil type, indigenous weeds, and personal preference. Recommendations of specific herbicides are best left to specialists in the area of production. Be sure the herbicides are recommended for establishment years before using on young vines as some registered herbicides are restricted to use on vines established 2 or more years. As with all agricultural chemicals, you should read and follow all label directions. The grower should apply a pre-emergent herbicide soon after the vines are planted and the soil has settled. Since the site was likely cultivated prior to the planting of vines, there should be no weeds present. A pre-emergent herbicide applied before weed seeds germinate should provide good control of weeds for the first part of the growing season, usually 6 to 8 weeks. Several factors contribute to the lack of season-long control including rainfall, sunlight and microbial degradation, and so on. In the Midwest, rainfall is probably the most common reason that pre-emergent herbicides “run out” before the end of the season. Lack of season-long weed control and only partial effectiveness against certain weed species are problems frequently encountered with pre-emergent herbicides. Once the pre-emergent herbicide becomes ineffective weed growth will resume. It is often necessary to apply a post emergent herbicide later in the season to control these “weed escapes.” Care must be taken when applying post emergent herbicides near actively growing vines as severe damage can result if broad-spectrum materials are used. Recent advances in herbicide application technology have reduced the potential for damage from broad-spectrum post emergent herbicides in vineyards. Shielded sprayers are capable of safely applying these materials adjacent to vines with low risk of herbicide damage to vines. Controlled-Droplet-Atomization (CDA) sprayers apply a very fine mist that provides excellent coverage when the spray pattern is shielded from wind. These sprayers apply post emergent herbicides at low volume and reduced rates while achieving excellent weed control. If CDA or other shielded sprayers are used, growers should be able to make 2 to 3 well timed post emergent herbicide applications each year and achieve excellent season-long weed control without applying a pre-emergent. Common post emergent herbicides used in grapes are glyphosate (e.g. Roundup), glufosinate (Rely), and sulfosate (Touchdown). See Table 1 for a list of herbicides for newly planted vines. Plastic or fabric mulches as well as organic mulches can also be used to suppress weeds and conserve moisture. Organic mulches are not commonly used in larger plantings due to the volume of material needed. Organic mulches such as sawdust should be well composted so they do not tie up nitrogen and stunt vine growth. Plastic or fabric mulches are effective, but few growers have the equipment and expertise to lay plastic and, planting vines though plastic is difficult. Fabric mulches can be laid down each side of the planted row by hand, but they are expensive. Cultivation is also effective, but must be shallow to avoid root damage. There are several types of cultivators specifically made for use in vineyards. Mechanical cultivation along the row with manual hand pulling or hoeing around the vines is effective if the grower is committed to hard work. Cultivation will typically be needed about every two weeks to be effective.
Young vines almost always benefit from nitrogen fertilizer applications. The application should be made just after shoot growth begins. An application of approximately 90 lb./A ammonium nitrate (30 lb./A actual N) is generally recommended on newly planted vines. This equates to 2 to 3 oz. per vine depending on vine and row spacing. The fertilizer should be applied in two foot bands down each side of the row if a spreader is available, or broadcast in a two foot radius circle around each plant if done by hand. Care should be taken to avoid concentrating the material at the base of the plants because grapes can be very susceptible to fertilizer burn. Nitrogen applications can be split into two or three applications at monthly intervals during the growing season, but should be applied no later than mid July to allow growth to properly mature before fall. Split applications are especially useful on well-drained, sandy soils were leaching can be a problem. For small plantings or when potassium level is low, a blended fertilizer can be used at a rate of 7-8 oz. of 10-10-10 fertilizer per plant to deliver 30 lb./A actual nitrogen. Nitrogen fertilization in the 2nd season should be the same as in the 1st season on weak vines, or doubled (60 lbs./A actual N) for vigorous vines.
Disease and insect control is necessary for young vineyards in the Midwest. New vineyards usually need far fewer sprays than producing vineyards because fruit is not present. However, since the main goal in the new vineyard is to establish a large healthy root system by promoting maximum amounts of healthy foliage, care should be taken to control diseases and insects that may damage foliage. Powdery and downy mildews are the most common leaf diseases of grapes. Varieties differ in susceptibility to these diseases so the amount of control needed is variety dependent. These diseases are best controlled with fungicide sprays. In addition to diseases, insects can pose a serious threat to grapevine foliage. Japanese beetles are the major insect pest of grape foliage in the Midwest. Complete control is difficult due to the nature of the pest, however, timely applications of insecticides when beetles populations peak can prevent significant damage. Integrated pest management approaches aided by modern crop protection chemicals are very effective at controlling common grape diseases and insects. Refer to your state’s pest management guidelines for specific recommendations on pesticides, and refer to the Midwest Small Fruit Pest Management Handbook (Ohio State University Bull. 861) for important information on managing diseases, insects, and weeds.
Bordelon, B. and J. Blume. 2000. Growth of grapevines with and without grow tubes. HortScience 35: 424 Zabadal, T., G.S. Howell, and T.W. Dittmer. 1991. Weed control, irrigation, pruning and nitrogen fertilization influences growth of newly planting ‘Niagara’ grapevines. HortScience 26: 761. Zabadal, T. and T.W. Dittmer. 1997. Vineyard Establishment III: How much weed control is necessary in a newly planted vineyard? SWMREC Report #6. Southwest Michigan Research and Extension Center, Michigan State University. Table 1. Pre emergent herbicides for use in newly planted grapes
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